Decolonization

Jamaica sought its independence from Britain since its earliest days; throughout its history it was fighting against the laws passed down by the Crown. The island made the final transition in the 20th century (Politics of Constitutional Decolonization).

After World War II, Jamaica began a relatively long transition to full political independence. They had a love-hate relationship with the British and resented British domination, racism, and the dictatorial Colonial Office (Igniting Independence) . Britain gradually granted the colony more self-government under periodic constitutional changes (Politics of Constitutional Decolonization). Jamaica's political patterns and governmental structure were shaped during two decades of what was called "constitutional decolonization," the period between 1944 and independence in 1962 (Igniting Independence).

The roots of the national movement for independence reach back into the struggles for land in the 19th century (Igniting Independence) . More immediately, it was inspired by the political ideas and protest of Marcus Garvey, one of Jamaica's national heroes, and precipitated by the reaction of the sugar and dockworkers to the economic crisis spawned by the Great Depression (Politics of Constitutional Decolonization). It emerged as a political force in the context of the rebellion in 1938. During the decolonization movement, various political parties arose (Igniting Independence) . These parties were the People’s National Party, the Jamaica Labor Party, the National Workers Union, and the Bustamante Industrial Trades Union (Politics of Constitutional Decolonization). The constitutional change that facilitated the emergence of these parties was the granting of adult suffrage and a measure of self-government in 1944 (Igniting Independence).

The weakness of the 1944 constitution lies in the relative lack of power of the ministers (Politics of Constitutional Decolonization). They were meant to deal with both the Executive Council and the House of Representatives, but had no responsibility to them. In 1951 discussions of future modifications arose when Sir Hugh Foot arrived as Governor (Politics of Constitutional Decolonization). By 1953 a new constitution with more changes was set forth. With this new system in place, Bustamante became Jamaica's first Chief Minister (Igniting Independence) . However, an election in 1955 brought a change of power and Manley took the position of Chief Minister (Politics of Constitutional Decolonization). During the next two years even more constitutional changes were made, and by the end, the government was a Cabinet Government with almost complete internal self-rule (Politics of Constitutional Decolonization).

For a long time, Britain wished to unite its Caribbean territories. Though many larger territories, including Jamaica, had objections, the group was joined together with the capital on Trinidad in 1958 (Politics of Constitutional Decolonization). The new group became the Federation of the West Indies. The Federation was created in January of that year, and elections were set for March. Though much work was done to make the Federation work, by 1961 Jamaica had put forth a referendum for its removal from the Federation (Politics of Constitutional Decolonization). The removal was granted and the British Government agreed to discuss Jamaica's independence. The Federation fell apart the following year (Politics of Constitutional Decolonization).

With Britain's willingness to discuss Jamaica's independence and dominion within the British Commonwealth of Nations, things proceeded quickly (Politics of Constitutional Decolonization). Within a year a new constitution had been drafted, strongly based on Jamaica's current design, but with a number of changes reflective of other British dominion nations (Igniting Independence).

The period 1944 – 1962 not only saw major political changes, but also major transformations of the structure of the economy (Igniting Independence). For an export economy, the economy became diversified around the export of sugar, bananas and other agricultural commodities, and the tourist industry (Politics of Constitutional Decolonization). These in turn, stimulated a vibrant construction industry, and an import substituting manufacturing sector.

The date for Jamaica's independence was set as August 6, 1962, and the political parties on the island quickly went into full force (Politics of Constitutional Decolonization). Jamaica has been free to make its own decisions since the early 1960s (Igniting Independence). Both Bustamante and Manley led Jamaica's people throughout much of modern history.

*All information found via:

"Jamaica History: Independence | Jamaica-guide.info." Jamaica Guide - Culture, History, Vacations, Travel, and More | Jamaica-guide.info. Web. 04 Dec. 2011. <http://jamaica-guide.info/past.and.present/history/independence/index.html>.

Munroe, Trevor. The Politics of Constitutional Decolonization: Jamaica 1944-62. Jamaica: Inst. of Social and Economic Research, Univ. of the West Indies, 1972. Print.

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Jamaicanisms: 

Bizarre Foods in Jamaica!

The Apprenticeship Era

In 1834, slavery was abolished, but the sugar industry continued (Jamaica History). After the abolition of slavery, Jamaica’s plantation owners looked for another source of legal labor (Religion and Society). Thus the concept of “apprenticeships” was created (Jamaica History). The system of apprenticeships stated that the ex-slaves would work without pay for their former masters for a certain amount of hours every week in exchange for shelter, food, clothing, and a small portion of the fields in which they could grow their own food during the remaining quarter of the week (Religion and Society). They could also, if they chose, hire themselves out for more wages during that remaining quarter (Religion and Society). With this money, the ex-slave and now apprentice could buy their freedom (Jamaica History). Local government abided by the regulations of the apprenticeship period on Jamaica, that Britain set in place, because the white plantation owners worried the slaves would leave and find their own land to live on and work for themselves (Jamaica History).


Although emancipation was brought to Jamaica, the historic apprenticeship period came with its own problems (Jamaica History). While emancipation laws required former masters to provide apprentices with shelter and food, many owners charged for food or for rent in the form of extra labor (Religion and Society). Special officers of the government were placed to regulate the apprenticeships and were intended to put a stop to these injustices, but they could not be at every plantation at once (Religion and Society). However, the majority worked diligently to improve the conditions of the apprentices. Another problem of apprenticeship was the division of labor hours (Jamaica History). The apprentices were required to work long hours per week for the master (up to 40 hours), but the hours were not divided (Religion and Society). While special officers fought for longer work days, leaving the apprentices Friday as well as Saturday free for other work, planters almost always insisted on shorter days, meaning the apprentices were not given much time for their own because they would be working every day (Jamaica History). The plantation owners also charged excessive rates to former slaves who wanted to buy their own freedom (Religion and Society).


While both men and women would work during the apprenticeship period, there were differences (Jamaica History). Traditionally, woman's place was in the home and women received lesser payments than men (Jamaica History). Women were still assigned domestic tasks inside the plantation homes or small fieldwork positions, while most men worked hard hours in the field or blacksmith positions (Religion and Society). Women and men were equally punished, however, if rebellion arose (Religion and Society).

While the apprenticeship was supposed to deter slavery qualities, particularly violence, it did not (Jamaica History). Planters were known to work their apprentices more harshly than they had when the blacks were slaves, with more brutal punishments as well (Jamaica History). Such brutal punishments included torture devices like the treadmill, which had been introduced to Jamaica in replacement for the use of whips, particularly on women (Religion and Society). The treadmill was a large cylinder with a series of steps attached to it. The person's weight on these steps caused the cylinder to spin, and they would have to step quickly to remain standing (Jamaica History). If a person fainted or fell, they would hang by the wrists tied to a handrail while the steps hit them (Religion and Society).

At the end of 1836, a new Governor attempted to pass a few laws through the Assembly to improve relations. However, the Assembly refuted the new laws, as it had done before, and nothing improved (Religion and Society).

Although the apprenticeship period in history was meant to ease the change between slavery and freedom for the landowners, there was no help for either freed black nor planter after the slaves were completely free, and this would cause a new host of problems (Religion and Society). Freedom, the ultimate right to act, speak, think and gain equality for the former slaves of Jamaica was not completely obtained until the end of the apprenticeship era in 1838 (Religion and Society).

*All information found via:

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"Jamaica History: Apprenticeship Period | Jamaica-guide.info." Jamaica Guide - Culture, History, Vacations, Travel, and More | Jamaica-guide.info. Web. 26 Nov. 2011. <http://jamaica-guide.info/past.and.present/history/apprenticeship.laws/>.

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Stewart, Robert J. Religion and Society in Post-emancipation Jamaica. Knoxville, TN: University of Tennessee, 1992. Print.

Jamaicanisms:

Jerk chicken recipe (from jamaicatravelandculture.com) 

Ingredients

You will need the following ingredients to prepare enough jerk chicken for 4 people:-
 One 3 1/2 lb chicken (3lb of chicken breasts may be used if preferred)
 6 sliced scotch bonnet peppers (jalapenos may be used if scotch bonnet peppers are unavailable)
 2 Tbsp. thyme
 2 Tbsp. ground allspice
 8 Cloves garlic, finely chopped
 3 Medium onions, finely chopped

2 Tbsp. sugar
2 Tbsp. salt
2 Tsp. ground black pepper

1 to 2 Tsp of the following (to taste)
-ground cinnamon
-nutmeg
-ginger

1/2 cup olive oil
1/2 cup soy sauce
Juice of one lime
1 cup orange juice
1 cup white vinegar

Preparation

 Chop the onions, garlic and peppers. These do not need to be chopped too fine as they will be liquidised by the blender.









 Blend all of the ingredients (excluding the chicken) in a blender to make the jerk sauce.










 Cut the chicken up in to 4 pieces.










 Rub the sauce in to the meat, saving some for basting and dipping later.
 Leave the chicken in the fridge to marinade overnight.

Cooking

 Bake in the oven for 30 minutes, turn the meat then bake for a further 30 minutes.

 or

 Grill the meat slowly until cooked, turning regularly. Baste with some of the remaining marinade whilst cooking. For best results, cook over a charcoal barbeque (ideally over a rack of pimento wood).

Serving

 Chop each quarter chicken portion in to 5 or 6 smaller pieces using a heavy cleaver.

 Use a wooden spoon (or something similar) to hold the chicken in place whilst chopping and NOT YOUR HAND (you will be chopping with enough pressure to cut through bone!!!)







 Serve with festival and salad or rice and peas or hardo bread and the jerk sauce left over for dipping.

FREEDOM

Although politically turbulent, the years following the French Revolution were quiet on Jamaica. Few slave uprisings occurred, and wars seemed to be finally at an end. However, when Britain called for the end of slavery, Jamaica's planters were faced with a situation they certainly did not want (Jamaica in Slavery and Freedom). 

The idea to abolish slavery in Britain had been brewing for a few centuries before finalizing in the early 1800s with the ban on importing slaves into the Caribbean colonies, as well as claiming all aspects of slave trade illegal (Jamaica in Slavery and Freedom). However, the new laws impact in Jamaica was minute – England’s distance from the Caribbean made it easy for the colonies to ignore.

1827 marked the year an Act of Parliament was passed in England that declared the smuggling of slaves to be a form of piracy. Piracy was punishable by death; this scared many away from the illegal actions happening mostly in the West Indies (Jamaica in Slavery and Freedom). Bills provisioning the emancipation of the slaves soon followed the abolition of the slave trade (Abolition of Slavery).

The abolition of slavery was the result of the work of many people in England who believed that slavery was inherently bad. Pressures in England by the Anti-Slavery Society led to the historic idea of a gradual abolition of slavery in the colonies (Abolition of Slavery). The government drew up laws defining the abolition of slavery, which also included instructions for the improvement of the slaves' way of life (Jamaica in Slavery and Freedom).

In Jamaica, however, the House of Assembly met these measures with refusal. The Assembly claimed that the slaves were content with life as they were, and they objected to Parliament's interference in island affairs (Abolition of Slavery). Jamaica’s governor, Duke of Manchester, did little to implement Britain's laws (Jamaica in Slavery and Freedom). England had high hopes that Jamaica would eventually come around to this new way of thinking (Jamaica in Slavery and Freedom). However, this was not the case.

The whites' dislike of the new policies led to unrest in the slave population (Jamaica in Slavery and Freedom). The whites would discuss these matters openly in front of slaves, and they slaves started to believe that the Jamaican government, along with the white masters, were withholding rights and their freedom that Britain had apparently granted them (Jamaica in Slavery and Freedom).

Revolts due to this unrest occurred in the British colony of Jamaica. Jamaican whites used this unrest to serve their own purposes, claiming that the slaves “had been happy until they began to believe the crown had made them free (Jamaica in Slavery and Freedom).” The Jamaican Assembly wrote to Britain asking for financial assistance in putting down these uprisings, claiming that it was the fault of their propaganda that led to revolts (Abolition of Slavery).

The Jamaican slaves, organized on the western part of the island, under the leadership of Samuel "Daddy" Sharpe. Sharpe was a Baptist preacher and slave and went on strike in 1831 (Jamaica in Slavery in Freedom). This strike grew into one of the biggest slave rebellions Jamaica ever experienced. It would also prove to be the last rebellion (Jamaica in Slavery and Freedom). This event inched towards their final goal of freedom.

Jamaica was also home to a large mulatto population, which would play an important role in the political changes of the island. The mulattoes were the descendants of white planters (Abolition of Slavery). Although the children were by law slaves, most fathers freed their children. By the 1820s, Jamaica's mulatto population was larger than the white population (Jamaica in Slavery and Freedom). Many had even acquired a great deal of wealth. Many were also involved in the militia (Jamaica in Slavery and Freedom). Edward Jordon was the leader of the free mulatto portion of the population, and he edited a newspaper that called for an end to slavery (Abolition of Slavery).

Jordon became an important part of Jamaican life in the next few years. The island's mulatto residents were also becoming dissatisfied with their position and lack of legal rights (Abolition of Slavery). Although they could work for themselves and own property, they could not vote or hold office (Jamaica in Slavery and Freedom). In 1820, the mulattoes of Jamaica had begun to organize behind Jordon. They managed to push through an act giving themselves full civil rights (Abolition of Slavery).

One of the strongest arguments for slavery had been the cheap cost of sugar production (Jamaica in Slavery and Freedom). However, negligence and other effects allowed the cost of sugar to ride dramatically in the British West Indies. The government decided to harshly tax sugar imported from other sources. By 1829, most British people could not afford sugar because the prices had skyrocketed (Jamaica in Slavery and Freedom). British laws to improve the quality of slave life were continuously rejected in Jamaica, but the argument for cheap labor had dissipated (Abolition of Slavery). Parliament was now no longer sympathetic to the troubles of the white plantation owners (Abolition of Slavery).

In 1833 a bill to free all slaves was introduced in the British Parliament, called the Abolition of Slavery Act (Jamaican in Slavery and Freedom). This Act eventually led to Jamaican independence.

*All information found via:

"Jamaica History: Abolition of Slavery | Jamaica-guide.info." Jamaica Guide - Culture, History, Vacations, Travel, and More | Jamaica-guide.info. Web. 13 Nov. 2011. <http://jamaica-guide.info/past.and.present/history/slavery.emancipation/>.

Monteith, Kathleen E. A., and Glen Richards. Jamaica in Slavery and Freedom: History, Heritage and Culture. Kingston, Jamaica: University of the West Indies, 2002. Print. 

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Jamaicanisms:

Jamaican Fried Dumplings Recipe (courtesy of allrecipes.com)

Ingredients

• 4 cups all-purpose flour
• 2 teaspoons baking powder
• 1 1/2 teaspoons salt
• 1/2 cup butter
• 1/2 cup cold water
• 1 cup vegetable oil for frying
• 
  
• Directions

1. In a large bowl, stir together the flour, baking powder and salt. Rub in the butter until it is in pieces no larger than peas. Mix in water 1 tablespoon at a time just until the mixture is wet enough to form into a ball. The dough should be a firm consistency. Knead briefly.
2. Heat the oil in a large heavy skillet over medium heat until hot. Break off pieces of the dough and shape into a patty - kind of like a flat biscuit. Place just enough of the dumplings in the pan so they are not crowded. Fry on each side until golden brown, about 3 minutes per side. Remove from the pan and drain on paper towels before serving.

Haitian Revolution Impact on Jamaica

The Haitian Revolution of 1791 to 1804 was a period of conflict in the French colony of Saint Domingue between the oppressive French colonists and their exploited slaves, which concluded in the abolition of slavery in Haiti and the founding of the Haitian Republic, a pure Black society (Impact of the Haitian Revolution). The Haitian Revolution was influential in slave rebellions in the United States and British colonies. It had a mirror effect on other colonies around the world, including Jamaica (Haiti).

The Haitian Revolution had a major impact on many countries. Other countries feared that the success of the slave revolt in Haiti would implant thoughts in slaves elsewhere (Haiti). The Haitian Revolution did in fact influence slaves to rebel against whites in other countries (Impact of the Haitian Revolution). Jamaica was strongly affected by the Haitian Revolution.

The Haitian army fought against the British army, who decided to invade Haiti during the revolutionary period to protect Jamaica from suffering the same fate (Impact of the Haitian Revolution). If Haiti had successfully revolted, then the British colony of Jamaica would be influenced by the success of the slave revolt (Haiti). The British wanted to protect Jamaica’s security by helping France suppress the Haitian Revolution. The British invaded Haiti in 1793 but later withdrew British troops in 1798 after a series of defeats by the army lead by Toussaint L’Ouverture (Impact of the Haitian Revolution).

Once Haiti achieved its independence; it provided a safe haven for slaves escaping within its borders (Impact of the Haitian Revolution). Under the Haitian Constitution, all people who were black that step foot onto Haitian soil was considered Haitian and were therefore protected by the constitution (Impact of the Haitian Revolution). Slaves fled from their countries and retreated to Haiti where they were accepted and allowed to be free citizens of the black nation (Haiti).

One famous case of Haiti protecting slaves from other territories is the case of a ship named the Deep Nine (Impact of the Haitian Revolution). In 1817 James M’Kewan led his slaves on an expedition from Jamaica to the east end of the island where they would supply other vessels with goods (Haiti). The black crew became separated from the owner during the exchange, and managed to escape from their master and set sail for Haiti on the Deep Nine (Impact of the Haitian Revolution). James M’Kewan went to Haiti in search of his slaves, but however, he could not find the slaves. He sought help from the Haitian President to personally demand the restitution of his property (Haiti). However, his attempts failed as the President said that the slaves were no longer slaves, and were in fact, citizens of Haiti. Therefore, they were protected by Haiti and its constitution. M’Kewan wrote several letters to the Haitian government requesting the return of his slaves (Haiti). However, he never retrieved his slaves due to the strict guidelines laid out in the Haitian Constitution (Impact of the Haitian Revolution).

The Haitian Revolution was the pride of all black globally and largely impacted many other societies. It had deep and lasting impact on the self-image and national identity of Blacks. The Haitian Revolution, indeed, stood as a model for achieving emancipation for slaves in the United States who mimicked Toussaint L'Ouverture's actions (Haiti).

All information found via: 

Geggus, David Patrick. The Impact of the Haitian Revolution in the Atlantic World. Columbia, SC: University of     South Carolina, 2001. Print.

"Haiti." Trinity College. Web. 06 Nov. 2011. <http://www.trincoll.edu/classes/hist300/group3/haiti.htm>.

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Jamaicanisms: 

Jamaica Fried Plantain Recipe (courtesy of foodjamaica.net)

INGREDIENTS:

• 4 firm-ripe plantains
• vegetable oil for deep-frying

COOKING INSTRUCTIONS:

1. Peel and slice the plantains. I find that the best way to slice them is either diagonally or you can cut the plantain in half and slice lengthwise. The plantain can also be sliced lengthwise full size, but the smaller diagonal or half slices are easier to fry.
2. Heat the oil over medium heat (around 375 degrees is good) in a large frying pan and add the sliced plantains.
3. Fry plantians until golden brown. They will cook very quickly, be careful not to burn them.
4. Place fried plantains on a paper towel and dry off any excess oil.

Thats it! Serve warm. Brown sugar is a good addition if ya want to sweet it up mon. If you any thing to add to this recipe then feel free to add a comment.

 Haitian Music